The most commonly used instructional procedures that occur before the student responds include prompting, shaping, modelling (demonstration) task analysis, chaining, and errorless learning. Often a combination of these procedures is used.

1. Prompting

   There are three basic types of prompting: a) auditory prompting, which includes verbal instructions and sound signals (eg., a timer buzzer or beeper), b) visual prompting (eg., gestures, demonstrations, hand signs, pictures, drawings, schedules, highlighted words, etc) and c) physical prompting (eg., lightly tapping a student’s arm to gain attention, hand-over- hand guidance, manual assistance, etc.)

   The basic principle for prompting students is to give as little assistance as possible. Assistance is increased or decreased according to the need. The ultimate goal for all instruction is for the student to perform as independently as possible. It is important to remember that when a specific prompt is chosen for a student, there should also be a plan for how the prompt will be gradually reduced. This process is called fading.

   Deciding on the prompts to use will depend on how the student best learns and on the demands of the given task. The general procedures for prompting usually include one or more of the following methods:

   • increasing assistance

     Also called least prompts or least-to-most prompts, the activity is begun with giving as little support as possible and increasing according to requirements.

   • decreasing assistance

     Also called most-to-least prompts the activity begins by giving as much information as possible and gradually decreasing as the activity proceeds

   • graduated guidance

     Graduated guidance involves adjusting the level of prompting from moment to moment according to the student’s performance. There are four parts to this technique, a) full guidance, b) partial guidance, c) shadowing and d) spatial fading. All four steps can be used within a single activity.

     With full guidance, the instructor’s hands are in full contact with the student’s throughout the exercise. Partial guidance involves the instructor’s hands being in contact with the student’s as much as needed. With shadowing the instructors hands are placed within a one or two centimetre proximity of the student’s. Spatial fading involves moving the physical contact from the hand to wrist, then gradually to the shoulder, to the back, then not at all.

     The following are recommended procedures for using guidance:

     • exert no more force than is needed to move the student’s hand in a desired direction
     • at the start of each trial, use the minimum force needed (a touch), building slowly until the student’s hand starts moving
     • decrease guidance when movement begins, continue decreasing as long as movement continues
     • if movement stops, increase force gradually until it begins again
     • if student resists or pulls away, apply just enough pressure to keep the hand motionless - when resistance ceases, gradually apply enough pressure to guide the hand
     • provide verbal praise during guidance only when the student is actively participating, not when the student is resistant or passive
     • follow the task through to completion, do not quit or interrupt before the final step
     • use either shadowing or spatial fading once guidance has been reduced to a touch.

     It is also important that the student is given a specific amount of time to respond after a prompt is given. Providing a delay before giving a prompt gives the student an opportunity to form an independent response, and prevents the development of patterned responses.

     The most commonly used methods of time delay are:

     • constant time delay

       During an activity the initial prompts are given at the same time as the material/concept to be taught is presented (0-second delay, also called simultaneous prompting). All other prompts are given at a predetermined delay interval (e.g., 5 seconds)

       For example, a student is required to read the word ‘Mom’. Initially, the student is shown a card on which ‘Mom’ is written. Simultaneous (0-second delay) to showing the student the card the instructor prompts the student by saying, “This word is ‘Mom’, say Mom”. After a few trials the instructor shows the card then waits 5 seconds before giving the prompt.

     • progressive time delay

       During an activity the initial prompts are given at the same time as the material/concept to be taught (0-second delay). As the exercise progresses, the amount of time given to respond to the material/concept is gradually increased (e.g., gradual increments of 2 seconds).

2. Shaping

   Shaping involves accepting approximations of a desired response, ultimately leading the student closer and closer to the complete desired response. Shaping is a very widely used practice, and occurs across classrooms, grade levels and extra curricular activities. Accepting a student’s initial mispronunciations of words that she/he is learning to speak (‘ha’, then ‘hap’, then ‘happy’), accepting attempts to decode words as reading is being learned, accepting “invented spelling” that approximate correct spellings, and accepting attempts at motor planning tasks, are examples of shaping.

   Although it is important to encourage attempts at tasks as the student works toward goals, it is crucial to the process of shaping that instructors are aware of the progress a student is making with each goal. It is important not to reinforce earlier approximations. For example, the student who has progressed to saying ‘hap’ should not be praised for saying ‘ha’. The possibility of student regression should be acknowledged, however. If after a time the student is not able to respond with a previously attained approximation it would be appropriate to reward a previous level. For example, after 3 days of not using ‘hap’, drop back to reinforcing ‘ha’.

3. Modelling (demonstration)

   Modelling is when an instructor demonstrates the desired response for a student. It provides for the student a ‘picture’ of what the desired response looks like. Modelling can be used alone or with prompting.

   The basic procedure for using modelling is:

   • get the student’s attention
   • ask the student to demonstrate the desired behaviour
   • if the student cannot perform the behaviour, model it
   • give a controlled, clear presentation, teaching the strategy the student will be asked to use
   • give explicit instructions for each step
   • have the student try to imitate the model
   • reinforce appropriate imitation (it need not be perfect)

   Cognitive modelling is ‘self-talk’ paired with modelling. The basic process for cognitive modelling is:

   1. the instructor states the steps of a procedure/routine while modelling it
   2. the student and instructor then verbalize the steps as the student performs the routine with the instructor’s assistance (verbal and physical prompting)
   3. the student goes through the routine saying the steps aloud while the instructor fades any verbal and/or physical prompts
   4. the student goes through the routine unassisted, whispering or repeating the steps inaudibly
   
   
4. Task analysis

   Task analysis is the process of breaking down a specific task into its individually sequenced component steps. Students with special needs often require numerous opportunities to learn a desired skill. Breaking down the steps into ‘small skills’ that are taught individually may be required. The ‘smaller’ tasks may then be more manageable.

5. Chaining

   Chaining is often used in conjunction with task analysis. Chaining involves the sequential linking of the ‘smaller tasks’ identified in the task analysis, gradually building the competence to complete the entire task.

   Forward chaining involves beginning with the first step of the analysed task and gradually learning each step, working forward towards the task completion.

   Backward chaining involves learning the last step first, then the step prior to the last step, and so on. Each newly learned step is completed in a forward sequence. For example, in a 5 step process the student is initially taught step 5. When asked to perform the task the student is assisted through steps 1 to 4, and does step 5 independently. The student is then taught step 4. When asked to perform the task the student is assisted through steps 1 to 3, then does steps 4 and 5 independently.

   Backward chaining is often the process of choice because it can provide the student with the feeling of task completion.

6. Errorless learning

   With errorless learning the student is presented with tasks that can be successfully completed, or guided through tasks by using sufficient prompts so that success can be achieved.

   
   

The most commonly used instructional procedures that occur after the student responds include reinforcement and corrective feedback

1. Reinforcement: responding to correct behaviour

   The two most basic rules about reinforcement include a) behaviour that is followed by a pleasant experience is more likely to occur again, and b) behaviour that is followed by an unpleasant experience is less likely to occur again. With respect to systematic instruction, the purpose of reinforcement is to motivate and maintain desired responses by presenting a consequence (a response) that encourages and rewards the appropriate performance. If a student will work to attain a reinforcement and the desired response is maintained or increased because of it, then the reinforcement is considered effective.

   When choosing a reinforcement procedure there are three critical points to consider: a) reinforcement is unique to the individual, what works for one student will not necessarily work for another; b) reinforcement is dynamic and can change from moment to moment; and c) external and contrived reinforcements must be eventually faded to natural and self-reinforcement.

   There are four types of reinforcers: edible, physical, material (activities, objects, tokens) and social. The choice of reinforcers must be made with care as there are advantages and disadvantages to each type of reinforcer at each stage of learning.

   Note: Physical, material, and edible reinforcers should always be paired with a social reinforcer.

   • Edible Reinforcers

     Edible reinforcers can be very powerful. They are often used when starting to teach a new activity or when working with a student who is new to the instructor. It is important to have a large variety of reinforcers to prevent loss of interest. When a student no longer responds to a reinforcer, satiation has occurred. This is usually a temporary effect and occurs after a high rate of reinforcement using the same reinforcer. To reduce the effects of satiation it helps to increase the number of edibles the student will work for and to eventually switch the student to other types of reinforcers.

   • Physical Reinforcers

     Physical reinforcers involve appropriate contact. This reinforcement includes contact such as a gentle touch or hug.

   • Material Reinforcers

     Material reinforcers are activities or objects given to a student after successfully completing an activity.

   • Social Reinforcers

     Social reinforcers are the most naturally occurring. They include praise, smiles, attention and friendly remarks. Many of our behaviours are maintained by social reinforcers. They are the most convenient to use and most acceptable. They make students less dependent on outside objects and sources. Social reinforcers should be delivered every time another type of reinforcer is used.

     Selecting reinforcers takes careful thought and planning. Some of the basic guidelines are:

     • reinforcers should be easy or convenient to deliver
     • reinforcers should not have the potential to interfere with other scheduled activities; for example, do not promise a walk when the task is completed if this will coincide with lunch
     • to assure the effectiveness of reinforcers, monitor their use and make sure that others working with the student know what reinforcers you are using (avoid using the same reinforcers for different behaviours, as this will diminish their effect)
     • in some cases it is important to change your reinforcer on a regular basis; if this is not possible, give smaller amounts of the same reinforcer
     • choose only those reinforcers that are age-appropriate and thus improve the image of the student
     • when a student is acquiring a new behaviour, reinforcers should immediately follow the desired behaviour, so the student clearly associates the reinforcer with the behaviour

     If you have used artificial reinforcers each time a student responds appropriately, it is important to help move the student to more natural reinforcers and schedules of reinforcement. This can be accomplished by:

     • changing the schedule of reinforcement from continuous to one nearer the schedule that occurs in the environment where the behaviour will be used
     • linking behaviours to activities the student already finds reinforcing, thus taking advantage of sources of reinforcement that already exist (for example, Johnny loved to listen to the Walkman, so when he completed an assignment ahead of time, he was allowed to listen to the Walkman for 5 minutes)
     • always pair tangible reinforcers with a social reinforcer, then gradually fade the tangible reinforcers
   
   
2. Corrective feedback

   When a student provides an incorrect or inappropriate response, corrective feedback is necessary so that the response can be changed to what is desired. Corrective feedback is given through verbally stating the mistake that was made and asking to try again, pointing out where the mistake was made, providing the correct response, and/or guiding the correct response. Corrective feedback can also be given through task interruption and/or physical guidance. In this manner, corrective feedback tends to be similar to the antecedent support (guidance) that was previously described.

   It is important that all correct feedback be given in a positive and supportive tone and manner. It is also important that the least amount of assistance possible is given.

   Corrective feedback is given immediately after the incorrect response, or by actually interrupting the incorrect procedure. This will increase the probability of the student being able to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate responses. It will also reduce the risk of inappropriate behaviours becoming patterned responses.

To be prepared to conduct tutoring activities, the teacher and Teacher Assistant need to develop a systematic training plan. The implementation of this plan, followed by teacher supervision, can maximize the effectiveness of the tutoring experience.

Based on the tutoring plan, the necessary materials need to be gathered and arranged. A well-organized system will allow for easy access to materials with little disruption of the instructional activities.

Equipment and materials should be examined prior to the tutoring to assure that they are ready for use.

To insure that the tutor and teacher have the same purpose for the tutoring session, a basic lesson plan should be developed by the teacher or under the teacher’s supervision. The lesson plan should include:

• a statement of the objective
• an outline of activities and a description of specific instructional procedures to be used
• a list of needed materials
• a plan for reinforcement
• procedures for record keeping

The Teacher Assistant may have the chance to work with numerous students throughout the school day on an individual basis, in a small group situation, or in a large group setting. Part of working successfully “is knowing the students”. The more you discover about a student, the easier it becomes to work with him or her.

There are many ways to learn more about the student. It is important to remember that you are in a role where the student will look up to you and may consider you a friend. You should be friendly with the student, but not become so close that you lose the student’s respect as an authority figure and are unable to be firm when necessary. The relationship should be one that communicates respect and caring. Specific techniques which encourage positive interaction include:

• using student’s first name
• establishing eye contact
• discussing the student’s interests

The following ideas may be used to learn more about the student:

1. Student Characteristics and Interests
   
   
   1. Observe the Student
      

      Observe the student in the classroom situation, by him/her self. Try to discover what types of activities seem to motivate the student.

   2. Open Conversation with the Student
      • ask about their day, family
      • ask what they enjoy during free time
      • discover their interests and activities
      • tell about yourself
        
        
   3. Be Approachable
      
      • give students your undivided attention
      • listen carefully to questions and concerns
      • understand the student’s world, relate to events of interest to the student
        
        
2. The Student’s Ability Level
   
   
   1. Student’s Skill Level
      • It is important to be aware of the student’s skill level in the subject in which you will be tutoring. If you do not know this from prior experience with this student, be sure to ask the teacher.
      
      
   2. Strengths and Weaknesses
      • Note student strengths as well as the areas where they need assistance. Build on successes and report any frustrations the student experiences to the teacher.
      
      
   3. Instructional Strategies
      • Talk with the classroom teacher about which instructional strategies they have found to work well with the student(s). For instance, the student may read best orally when alternating pages are read with another student.
      
      

Establishing and maintaining rapport is an important element in determining the success of a tutoring session. The interaction between the student and the Teacher Assistant is important because of the amount of time the Teacher Assistant spends with the individual student.

1. Before You Begin a Lesson

   Before beginning a lesson it is important to make the student aware of the instructional plan. You may accomplish this by:

   • discussing the lesson objectives with the student
   • outlining the lesson
   • asking the student if he/she has any questions before you begin
   
   
2. Encouraging the Student

   The more trust the student has in the Teacher Assistant, the easier it is to encourage the student to master learning in areas they might be reluctant to try. As students develop confidence in their skills, the Teacher Assistant can encourage independence in using those skills. Specific techniques which encourage students are:

   • meet the student in a relaxed, friendly manner
   • set an example by being courteous and respectful
   • be supportive and provide encouragement
   • communicate that learning is an important and worthwhile task
   • maintain a sense of humour
   
   
3. Conducting a Lesson

   Maintaining rapport during a lesson is important to ensure the success of the lesson. Some of this will depend upon the Teacher Assistant making decisions on the spot, such as taking a break if a child appears tired or frustrated. There are other techniques which may be used throughout a lesson. These include:

   • read verbal, eye, hand, and posture cues of the learner
   • provide encouragement and praise throughout the lesson
   
   

Before beginning instruction with students, it is crucial to make sure they are paying attention. The following are some suggestions to consider:

1. Excite the student(s) about learning. Try to make the activity fun and explain the activity in an enthusiastic manner.
2. When directions are being given, make sure that the student is listening to what you are saying; ask the student to repeat back those directions; have her/him summarize what he/she are supposed to do before starting the activity.
3. To help a student pay attention, say the student’s name, and move closer to the student, or gently touch his or her arm.
4. A signal, such as a raised hand, may work as an attention getter for a group of students who are talking and not paying attention.
5. If you explain to students the objective of the lesson, or why they need to know something, they will understand the importance of the lesson.
6. Use reinforcement; if students know they will be reinforced for learning something, they may be more motivated to pay attention.
7. Ask teacher and other staff what they have tried with students to establish and maintain attention.

It is important to realize that some days are better than others as far as student attention is concerned. Events outside of school may affect a student’s ability to pay attention. Though there are many tips for establishing attention, the best knowledge comes from experience.

The objective is to give clear, concise verbal directions that are appropriate for the individual student. The Teacher Assistant may practice giving directions with the teacher, who can provide feedback on how easy or difficult the directions are to understand. Techniques to keep in mind include:

• insuring that the student is attending
• selecting vocabulary that is appropriate for the student
• explaining the purpose of the lesson
• presenting only one set of directions at a time

When it is appropriate to ask questions during the tutoring session, the Teacher Assistant needs to use effective “questioning procedures”. The purpose of questioning is to determine the student’s level of mastery in order to proceed with new instructional activities. Good questioning practices involve:

• asking open-ended questions, these require more than a “yes” or “no” answer
• ordering questions sequentially to guide a student toward the conclusion
• varying the levels of questions
• helping organize ideas into generalizations

There are different levels of questioning which may be used in determining a child’s understanding of materials:

• literal questions ask for specific information
• interpretative questions require a student to use their own opinions and thoughts
• analytical questions are the highest level, and require a student to synthesize and apply information in an abstract way

The way in which “Requests for Help” are dealt with can enhance rapport with students and affect learning outcomes. Helping at the appropriate time prevents a student from becoming frustrated with an activity, but additional direction sometimes distracts the student from the task. The Teacher Assistant needs to understand the difference between providing the answer for the student and effectively guiding the student to find the answer independently.

Learning increases when lessons are concluded in a manner that helps students organize and remember the point of the lesson. Activities used to conclude a lesson are often referred to as “closure”.

1. Purposes of Closure
   • draws attention to the end of the lesson
   • helps students organize their learning
   • reinforces the major points of the lesson
   • allows students to practice what is learned
   • provides opportunity for feedback and review

   Each lesson should have its own conclusion, based on the type of material being studied and the type of learning activities being used in lesson.
   
   

2. Examples
   • summarize the high points of the lesson
   • ask students to summarize certain points in the lesson
   • ask questions of students about the lesson
   • allow students to ask questions about the lesson
   • connect the lesson with previous activities and provide information about what will come next
     
     
3. Sample Statements Used to Provide Closure
   • “Before moving on, let’s review the main points that we’ve already covered.”
   • “Kevin, could you please summarize what we’ve talked about up to this point?”
   • “Joann, what were the main points we discussed today?”

The lesson which the teacher planned for 20 minutes is completed in 10 minutes. What should you do?

The lesson prepared is clearly not working. The student is very frustrated. What should you do?

At times it may be necessary to conclude a lesson before it is finished or before the scheduled time is up.

When should a Teacher Assistant deviate from a lesson plan?

• a student does not appear to have the basic skills necessary to complete the activity
• a student is too upset to continue the lesson
• the student completes the lesson in less than the allotted time
• the student is making errors on every problem
• the student’s behaviour does not allow you to continue
• the child stops and refuses to do anything else
• the child shows obvious frustration with the lesson
• another event or emergency in the classroom requires your immediate attention

To address these situations, the educational team has to prepare alternatives. Examples of alternative plans might be:

• a folder for each child, with work in it that could be used
• review previous lessons that you have completed with the student
• the student may work on any homework they have acquired
• the student may do independent reading
• a set of educational games/activities that have been pre-approved by the teacher

1. Reporting Problems to the Teacher

   If there are difficulties with a lesson the Teacher Assistant should report the problem to the supervising teacher. The supervising teacher needs to know what is going wrong and why. The teacher assistant should note the types of mistakes the student is making and the student’s behaviour that contributes to the difficulties in completing the lesson. This information helps the teacher plan more effective lessons in the future.

2. Cautions

   Students can become adept at finding reasons to delay or terminate a lesson. Teacher Assistants do not want to be in the position of having to terminate a lesson frequently. If there are problems with a lesson, adjustments should be made prior to the next lesson. The Teacher Assistant should try to motivate the student, clarify directions, and provide assistance and examples before deciding to terminate the lesson.

There are a variety of methods to record a student’s response and performance. The teacher should select the procedures to be used. The goal is to choose a simple recording system that does not distract from the tutoring activities, and relates directly to the objectives in the lesson plan. The teacher should explain the purpose of the record keeping system and demonstrate the procedures to be used in maintaining appropriate records.

The format used for record keeping should lend itself to planning future instructional activities.

1. When Record Keeping the Teacher Assistant Should:
   • maintain accurate records of the student’s performance if not on each session then frequently
   • report any concerns or observations to the teacher
   • respect confidential information about the student
     
     
2. Observing Student Progress

   Accurate observation of a student’s performance is important to ensure that records are correct. A few things to keep in mind when observing include:

   • maintain careful attention to the task observed
   • make recordings discreetly
   • observe specific behaviours
   • offer general observations about the environment and student behaviour
     
     
3. Recording Progress

   There are various ways of recording student progress, and the teacher may identify a specific technique to be used within a lesson. If the Teacher Assistant encounters a specific task which seems to present difficulty for a student, it would help to keep a record of it. The Teacher Assistant may be asked to make recordings according to:

   • percentage
   • frequency
   • rate
   • duration
   • interval recording
   • time sampling
   • anecdotal records

   Please refer to Appendix D for detail regarding these methods.
   
   

Teacher Assistants can assess their own skills using self-evaluation. The following questions can help Teacher Assistants identify areas where they were successful or where additional training is needed.

• “Was I prepared adequately for the tutoring session?”
• “Did I follow the lesson plan and understand the goals?”
• “Did I maintain accurate records and comments about the session?”
• “Did I establish rapport with the student?”

Effective and open communication promotes an awareness of others interests and needs. Being aware of the necessary skills that will encourage open communication is important when working with others.

1. 12 Roadblocks to Communication

   There are thousands of messages that we can send to students by how we communicate with them. They can be grouped into twelve categories, each of which tends to slow or completely stop existing communication.

   Some typical responses that communicate unacceptance are:

   1. Ordering, commanding, directing.

      Example: “Stop whining and get back to work.”

   2. Warning, threatening.

      Example: “You had better get your act together if you expect to pass.”

   3. Moralizing, preaching, giving “shoulds” and oughts”.

      Example: “You should leave your personal problems out of the classroom.”

   4. Advising, offering solutions or suggestions.

      Example: “I think you need to get a daily planner so you can organize your time better to get your homework finished.”

   5. Teaching, lecturing, giving logical arguments.

      Example: “You better remember you only have 10 minutes to complete this work.”

      These next responses tend to communicate inadequacies and faults:

   6. Judging, criticizing, disagreeing, blaming.

      Example: “You are such a lazy kid. You never do what you say you will.”

   7. Name-calling, stereotyping, labelling.

      Example: “Act your age. You are not a kindergartner.”

   8. Interpreting, analysing, diagnosing.

      Example: “You are avoiding facing this assignment because you missed the directions due to talking.”

      Other messages try to make the student feel better or deny there is a problem:

   9. Praising, agreeing, giving positive evaluations.

      Example: “You are a smart kid. You can figure out a way to finish this assignment.”

   10. Reassuring, sympathizing, consoling, supporting.

       Example: “I know exactly how you are feeling. If you just begin, it won’t seem so bad.”

       This response tends to try to solve the problem for the student:

   11. Questioning, probing, interrogating, cross-examining.

       Example: “Why did you wait so long to ask for assistance? What was so hard about this worksheet?”

       These messages tend to divert the student or avoid the student altogether.

   12. Withdrawing, distracting, being sarcastic, humouring, diverting.

       Example: “Seems like you got up on the wrong side of the bed today.”

   Many people are unaware that they respond to students in one of these twelve ways. It is important that we know alternative ways of responding. Many of the above responses have hidden messages when the student hears them. They may hear you saying that they are to blame or that they can’t do anything right, when your intention for the message was quite different.

2. Active Listening

   As an alternative to the roadblocks discussed above, active listening can be used to promote communication. Communication has several avenues that can get crossed if the speaker is not clear with the message or the listener decodes it incorrectly. When we use our own words to repeat back what we think the student has just communicated, we are clarifying their message and acknowledging their feelings. This “feedback” is call active listening. For example:

   Student:  I don’t like this school as much as my old one. People are not very nice.”

   TA:  I see that you are feeling sad. Are you unhappy at this school?

   Student:  Yeah. I haven’t made any good friends. No one includes me.

   TA:  You feel left out here?

   Student:  Yeah. I wish I knew more people.

   The Teacher Assistant is verbalizing what he/she thinks the student is saying. This lets the student affirm what the Teacher Assistant said or explain their meaning in a different way.

   Active listening can be a powerful tool to help Teacher Assistants communicate more productive with students. Active listening helps understand what the student is saying, and helps the student articulate their concerns.

   Active listening can:

   • help students deal with and “defuse” strong feelings
   • help students understand their own emotions
   • facilitate problem solving
   • keep the responsibility with the student
   • make students more willing to listen to others
   • promote a closer, more meaningful relationship between the Teacher Assistant and student
     
     
3. Talking with Students

   It is important that when we talk with students we are engaging in certain behaviours that facilitate openness and acceptance. When we actively use the recommendations listed below, students tend to be more receptive to listening and communicating. Some suggestions to use while communicating with students are:

   1. Posture

      Try to make your posture mirror that of the students. It is helpful to have your shoulders squared with the student’s and on about the same level so you are face-to-face. It is also helpful to have a slightly forward lean toward the student.

   2. Eye Contact

      Eye contact with students shows that you are interested in what they have to say.

   3. Facial Expression

      What is shown on your face should match what is on the child’s. Smiling when the child is obviously sad would be an example of an incongruent facial expression.

   4. Distance

      Distance from the child shouldn’t be too close or too distant; about one metre is the average. Standing too close can make the student uncomfortable, while standing too far away can indicate that you are disinterested in what the student is saying.

   5. Distracting Behaviours

      Distracting behaviours, such as playing with your hands, staring out the window, or doing something else while listening should be eliminated when talking to students or staff members.

   6. Voice Quality

      Your tone should match the child’s. It would be inappropriate to be loud if the child is in a quiet mood.

   A few more helpful hints are:

   • establish a positive relationship with the students (respect, courtesy, friendship)
   • try to encourage students rather than to control
   • be positive in speaking to the student, avoid “putting them down.”
   • when possible, organize ahead of time and think before speaking
   • use the student’s name
   • when giving directions, get the student’s attention first
   • speak in a calm manner
   • try to maintain eye contact with the student
   • minimize distractions
   • let them know why the topic is important
   • let them know that you are talking to them for their benefit
   • use questions to involve the student and monitor understanding
   • include examples from the student’s experience
   • avoid discussing a student’s personal problems when you feel uncomfortable about it
   • if frustration, anger, or boredom occurs, stop
   • reinforce and support students for listening
     
     
4. Accepting Language

   A language of acceptance can make students feel more comfortable and at ease. When they know they will be accepted, students will respond more openly and growth is more likely to be seen.

The student listens to directions from the instructor or observes natural cues in the environment.

The student gets ready to work by assembling what ever materials are necessary, preparing to receive further instructions, and beginning the task as instructed.

The student frequently checks her/his work to see if it is being done well, and according to the instructions given.

The student checks to make sure she/he is working quickly enough and that a certain amount of work will be completed within a reasonable amount of time.

Should a problem be encountered along the way the student thinks of ways in which it may be solved.

The student realizes when the task has been completed, and successfully according to the instructions given.

The student talks to the instructors, parents and peers about the tasks, describing the sequence of steps involved, the strategies that may be used, how problems may be solved, whether or not it is enjoyable, etc.

The student may be working with a buddy, or in a cooperative group.

Whenever it is possible, the student demonstrates preferences and makes independent choices regarding the task.